Changes for page The Existence of Race

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30	30	With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Tang, Hua et al. *“Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies.”* American Journal of Human Genetics 76(2): 268–275 (2005) – (Found that genetic clusters correspond 99.86% with self-identified race in a US sample). Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707625786{{/footnote}}
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32		-Genetic clusters consistently mirror the major traditional races. If humans are partitioned into, say, five genetic clusters, these turn out to correspond to people of Africa, Europe (and West Asia), East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, respectively. (Increasing the number of clusters can subdivide groups further; for example, a six-group analysis might separate out a specific population like the Kalash of South Asia as its own cluster.) The point remains that human genetic variation is geographically structured in a roughly hierarchical way, reflecting our evolutionary history of populations expanding and diverging in relative isolation. These genetic groupings correspond closely to classical racial groupings, even if researchers today often use the terms “population” or “ancestry” instead of “race”.
	32	+Genetic clusters consistently mirror the major traditional races. If humans are partitioned into, say, five genetic clusters, these turn out to correspond to people of Africa, Europe (and West Asia), East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, respectively.{{footnote}} Rosenberg, Noah et al. *“Genetic Structure of Human Populations.”* Science 298: 2381–2385 (2002) – (Used 377 microsatellites to find clustering into 5 continental groups). Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12493913/{{/footnote}} (Increasing the number of clusters can subdivide groups further; for example, a six-group analysis might separate out a specific population like the Kalash of South Asia as its own cluster.) The point remains that human genetic variation is geographically structured in a roughly hierarchical way, reflecting our evolutionary history of populations expanding and diverging in relative isolation. These genetic groupings correspond closely to classical racial groupings, even if researchers today often use the terms “population” or “ancestry” instead of “race”.
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34	34	One striking genetic finding is that sub-Saharan Africans form the most divergent branch of the human family tree. Worldwide DNA surveys consistently show that *Africans (especially indigenous sub-Saharan groups) have the greatest genetic distance from all other human populations*. This is consistent with the “Out of Africa” model: African lineages are the oldest and most diverse, whereas non-African populations stem from one subset of Africans that migrated out 50–70,000 years ago, acquiring additional differentiation subsequently. After the primary African vs. non-African split, the next major genetic differentiation is often observed between Oceanian (Australo-Melanesian) peoples and the rest of Eurasians. Other continental groups – Europeans, East Asians, Native Americans, etc. – cluster intermediate to those extremes. In essence, humans have a *tree-like genetic structure* with real branches, rather than being a uniform blend.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=If%20we%20return%20to%20the,fascinating%20topic%20for%20another%20day]]{{/footnote}}
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50	50	Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry about 91% of the time using skeletal evidence.{{footnote}}Thomas, R.M. et al., "Accuracy Rates of Ancestry Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists," *J. Forensic Sci.* 62(4): 971–974 (2017). Available at: [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly]]{{/footnote}} Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull.{{footnote}}Wade, Nicholas, "*Forensic anthropologists can identify a person’s race from a skull,*" *Science* (2002). Available at: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry#:~:text=A%20few%20studies%20claim%20that,99%25%20accuracy%20depending]]{{/footnote}} These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality.{{footnote}}Thomas, R.M. et al., "Accuracy Rates of Ancestry Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists," *J. Forensic Sci.* 62(4): 971–974 (2017). Available at: [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly]]{{/footnote}}
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52		-Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball]]{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}}Hans F.K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History* (1927). Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}}
	52	+Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule),{{footnote}} Examples of climate adaptations in humans (textbook sources on Bergmann’s rule, Allen’s rule in human populations). Available at: https://humanbiology.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/8-9-human-responses-to-extreme-climates/{{/footnote}} whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball]]{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}}Hans F.K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History* (1927). Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}}
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54	54	== Facial and Cranial Features ==
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121	121	Despite the scientific evidence for biological races, the topic is often contentious. One reason is that racial classification was historically misused to justify discrimination. This has led some scholars to reject the race concept entirely or say “race is only a social construct.” It is certainly true that the *folk categories* of race (how societies arbitrarily define racial groups) have some ambiguity and that no single gene distinguishes all members of one race from all of another. However, to leap from those truths to the claim that “race has no biological basis” is an overgeneralization not supported by current science.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=This%20in%20turn%20means%20that,discussed%20in%20an%20earlier%20post]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "The meaning of the biological concept of race," *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=The%20meaning%20of%20the%20biological,evolutionary%20origin%20of%20group%20members]]{{/footnote}}
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123		-Modern researchers advocating a biological understanding of race do not claim that races are *totally separate or discrete*. Instead, they recognize that human variation is clinal and statistical – meaning traits change gradually over geography and that any racial boundaries will be blurred at the edges. But *fuzzy boundaries do not erase the existence of clusters*. As evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne explains, the existence of intermediate cases or the arbitrariness of drawing lines does not negate the reality that genetic ancestry clusters exist and matter.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "The meaning of the biological concept of race," *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=The%20meaning%20of%20the%20biological,evolutionary%20origin%20of%20group%20members]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} We can analogize to colors of the rainbow: there is no sharp boundary between, say, orange and yellow, yet orange and yellow are real groupings on the light spectrum. Similarly, human groups transition gradually, yet Africans, Europeans, East Asians, etc., are real genetic clusters at the continental scale.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}}
	123	+Modern researchers advocating a biological understanding of race do not claim that races are *totally separate or discrete*. Instead, they recognize that human variation is clinal and statistical{{footnote}} Shiao, Jiannbin et al. *“The genomic challenge to the social construction of race.”* Sociological Theory 30(2): 67–88 (2012) – (Proposes concept of “clinal classes” acknowledging genetic clusters consistent with race). Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258190374_The_Genomic_Challenge_to_the_Social_Construction_of_Race{{/footnote}} – meaning traits change gradually over geography and that any racial boundaries will be blurred at the edges. But *fuzzy boundaries do not erase the existence of clusters*. As evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne explains, the existence of intermediate cases or the arbitrariness of drawing lines does not negate the reality that genetic ancestry clusters exist and matter.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "The meaning of the biological concept of race," *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=The%20meaning%20of%20the%20biological,evolutionary%20origin%20of%20group%20members]]{{/footnote}}{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} We can analogize to colors of the rainbow: there is no sharp boundary between, say, orange and yellow, yet orange and yellow are real groupings on the light spectrum. Similarly, human groups transition gradually, yet Africans, Europeans, East Asians, etc., are real genetic clusters at the continental scale.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}}
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125	125	Another common misconception comes from quoting Lewontin’s 85% figure (within-race variation) to say “there are more differences within races than between them.” This argument, as discussed, is fallacious when used to dismiss race.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=An%20argument%20is%20that%20there,it%20is%20fallacious%20because%20it]]{{/footnote}} Yes, any two random humans share the vast majority (\99.9%) of their DNA, and any two people of the same race are not genetically identical either. But the pattern of that 0.1% difference is highly structured by ancestry. Numerous loci considered together provide enough information to distinguish populations with great reliability.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are races social constructs without scientific or biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True*, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=authors%20note%3A]]{{/footnote}} To put it another way, the *overall genomic similarity* between any two humans is high, yet the *specific ways* in which they differ can tell us their ancestral background. This is why genomic analysis can determine a person’s continent-of-origin, or even more fine-grained ethnicity, from a DNA sample – something impossible if race were solely a social fiction.
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