Changes for page The Existence of Race

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30	30	With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Tang, Hua et al. *“Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies.”* American Journal of Human Genetics 76(2): 268–275 (2005) – (Found that genetic clusters correspond 99.86% with self-identified race in a US sample). Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707625786{{/footnote}}
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32		-Genetic clusters consistently mirror the major traditional races. If humans are partitioned into, say, five genetic clusters, these turn out to correspond to people of Africa, Europe (and West Asia), East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, respectively. (Increasing the number of clusters can subdivide groups further; for example, a six-group analysis might separate out a specific population like the Kalash of South Asia as its own cluster.) The point remains that human genetic variation is geographically structured in a roughly hierarchical way, reflecting our evolutionary history of populations expanding and diverging in relative isolation. These genetic groupings correspond closely to classical racial groupings, even if researchers today often use the terms “population” or “ancestry” instead of “race”.
	32	+Genetic clusters consistently mirror the major traditional races. If humans are partitioned into, say, five genetic clusters, these turn out to correspond to people of Africa, Europe (and West Asia), East Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, respectively.{{footnote}} Rosenberg, Noah et al. *“Genetic Structure of Human Populations.”* Science 298: 2381–2385 (2002) – (Used 377 microsatellites to find clustering into 5 continental groups). Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12493913/{{/footnote}} (Increasing the number of clusters can subdivide groups further; for example, a six-group analysis might separate out a specific population like the Kalash of South Asia as its own cluster.) The point remains that human genetic variation is geographically structured in a roughly hierarchical way, reflecting our evolutionary history of populations expanding and diverging in relative isolation. These genetic groupings correspond closely to classical racial groupings, even if researchers today often use the terms “population” or “ancestry” instead of “race”.
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34	34	One striking genetic finding is that sub-Saharan Africans form the most divergent branch of the human family tree. Worldwide DNA surveys consistently show that *Africans (especially indigenous sub-Saharan groups) have the greatest genetic distance from all other human populations*. This is consistent with the “Out of Africa” model: African lineages are the oldest and most diverse, whereas non-African populations stem from one subset of Africans that migrated out 50–70,000 years ago, acquiring additional differentiation subsequently. After the primary African vs. non-African split, the next major genetic differentiation is often observed between Oceanian (Australo-Melanesian) peoples and the rest of Eurasians. Other continental groups – Europeans, East Asians, Native Americans, etc. – cluster intermediate to those extremes. In essence, humans have a *tree-like genetic structure* with real branches, rather than being a uniform blend.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=If%20we%20return%20to%20the,fascinating%20topic%20for%20another%20day]]{{/footnote}}
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37		-It is true (as often cited) that within-group genetic variation is large: roughly 85% of human genetic variation exists *within* local populations, and only 15% between major races. However, this fact – first highlighted by Richard Lewontin in 1972 – does not mean races are meaningless, and it can be misleading if taken out of context. The key rebuttal is known as “Lewontin’s Fallacy.” Lewontin had calculated variation one gene at a time, finding each gene’s differences small between groups. But later statisticians (such as A. W. F. Edwards){{footnote}}Edwards, A.W\.F. *“Human genetic diversity: Lewontin’s fallacy.”* BioEssays 25: 798–801 (2003) – (Explains why high within-race variation doesn’t negate the ability to classify races by genes; importance of correlation structure). Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.10315{{/footnote}} pointed out that while any single gene varies mostly within groups, the correlations among many genes allow nearly perfect classification of individuals into their population of origin. As Edwards noted, *Lewontin’s argument “ignores the fact that most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of individual factors.”* When many loci are considered together, distinct genetic signatures emerge for different races. In practical terms, while two individuals from different races may share certain genes or traits, when you look at hundreds or thousands of genetic markers simultaneously, the overall pattern reveals their differing ancestry.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=An%20argument%20is%20that%20there,it%20is%20fallacious%20because%20it]]{{/footnote}}
	37	+It is true (as often cited) that within-group genetic variation is large: roughly 85% of human genetic variation exists *within* local populations, and only 15% between major races. However, this fact – first highlighted by Richard Lewontin in 1972 – does not mean races are meaningless, and it can be misleading if taken out of context. The key rebuttal is known as “[[Lewontin’s Fallacy>>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12879450/]].” Lewontin had calculated variation one gene at a time, finding each gene’s differences small between groups. But later statisticians (such as A. W. F. Edwards){{footnote}}Edwards, A.W\.F. *“Human genetic diversity: Lewontin’s fallacy.”* BioEssays 25: 798–801 (2003) – (Explains why high within-race variation doesn’t negate the ability to classify races by genes; importance of correlation structure). Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.10315{{/footnote}} pointed out that while any single gene varies mostly within groups, the correlations among many genes allow nearly perfect classification of individuals into their population of origin. As Edwards noted, *Lewontin’s argument “ignores the fact that most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of individual factors.”* When many loci are considered together, distinct genetic signatures emerge for different races. In practical terms, while two individuals from different races may share certain genes or traits, when you look at hundreds or thousands of genetic markers simultaneously, the overall pattern reveals their differing ancestry.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=An%20argument%20is%20that%20there,it%20is%20fallacious%20because%20it]]{{/footnote}}
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39	39	Moreover, the level of between-group genetic differentiation humans *do* have (about 10–15% variation partitioned between races) is not biologically trivial. In population genetics, a statistic called F<sub>ST</sub> measures the genetic differentiation among populations. Humans’ inter-group F<sub>ST</sub> values (on the order of 0.1–0.2 between continental groups) are comparable to or greater than those seen between subspecies in many other animals. In fact, one analysis showed humans have *higher* genetic differentiation and heterozygosity than some species that are formally divided into multiple subspecies. For example, many mammal and bird species are split into subspecies for far smaller genetic gaps. Thus, by zoological criteria, it is reasonable to view major human populations as akin to subspecies.{{footnote}}Anonymous, "Race is biologically non-existent — I’m not making it up," *Tumblr Blog*, 2014. Available at: [[https://someofmybestfriendsarewhite.tumblr.com/post/80846397928/race-is-biologically-non-existent-im-not-making#:~:text=of%20the%20framework%20of%20race,of%20potential%20human%20phylogenetic%20species]]{{/footnote}}
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50	50	Skulls and skeletal measurements vary sufficiently by ancestry that forensic anthropologists can often determine a person’s race or ancestry from skeletal remains with high accuracy. In actual forensic case studies, anthropologists correctly estimated ancestry about 91% of the time using skeletal evidence.{{footnote}}Thomas, R.M. et al., "Accuracy Rates of Ancestry Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists," *J. Forensic Sci.* 62(4): 971–974 (2017). Available at: [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly]]{{/footnote}} Under research conditions, using detailed craniometric measurements, accuracy rates between 81% and 99% have been reported for identifying an individual’s race from the skull.{{footnote}}Wade, Nicholas, "*Forensic anthropologists can identify a person’s race from a skull,*" *Science* (2002). Available at: [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry#:~:text=A%20few%20studies%20claim%20that,99%25%20accuracy%20depending]]{{/footnote}} These successes are possible only because cranial shape and dimensions differ by population – for instance, features of the eye orbits, jaw, nasal aperture, etc., exhibit patterns characteristic of Africans, Europeans, East Asians, and so on. The existence of such consistent skeletal differences (so much so that “race” can be diagnosed from a skull) underscores that race has biological reality.{{footnote}}Thomas, R.M. et al., "Accuracy Rates of Ancestry Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists," *J. Forensic Sci.* 62(4): 971–974 (2017). Available at: [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28133721/#:~:text=skeletons%20of%20individuals%20from%20known,recent%20cases%20showed%20a%20significantly]]{{/footnote}}
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52		-Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule), whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball]]{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}}Hans F.K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History* (1927). Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}}
	52	+Specific skeletal and body-form differences follow ecogeographical rules. Populations from cold climates tend to have bulkier bodies and shorter limbs, conserving heat (an instance of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule),{{footnote}} Examples of climate adaptations in humans (textbook sources on Bergmann’s rule, Allen’s rule in human populations). Available at: https://humanbiology.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/8-9-human-responses-to-extreme-climates/{{/footnote}} whereas those from hot climates are more long-limbed and slender to dissipate heat. For example, within Africa, Nilotic peoples (such as the Dinka and Maasai of East Africa) are renowned for being extremely tall and lean – adult males often exceed 6 feet, with elongated limb proportions.{{footnote}}Jared Taylor, "The Biological Reality of Race," *American Renaissance*, October 1999. Available at: [[https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=The%20Elongates%2C%20on%20the%20other,modern%20American%20game%20of%20basketball]]{{/footnote}} This “elongated” physique is thought to be an adaptation for survival in hot, arid environments. In contrast, Arctic indigenous groups (like Inuit) tend to have stockier, compact bodies presumably adapted to cold stress (shorter limbs, more body fat insulation), though these groups were not mentioned in our sources. Even within more temperate regions, historical European races were differentiated by stature and build – e.g. the Nordic race was characterized as tall and long-legged, whereas the Alpine and Dinaric races of central Europe were more stocky on average.{{footnote}}Hans F.K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History* (1927). Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}}
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54	54	== Facial and Cranial Features ==
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