Changes for page The Existence of Race

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76	76	* Sickle Cell Disease & Malaria Adaptation: *Sickle cell anemia* is often cited in discussions of race and genetics. This serious genetic blood disorder is most common in those of African descent (also in parts of the Middle East and India). In the U.S., over 100,000 individuals (mostly African-Americans) have sickle cell disease.{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=More%20than%20100%2C000%20individuals%20in,blood%20transfusions%20throughout%20their%20lifetime{{/footnote}} The reason is evolutionary: the sickle-cell mutation provides resistance to malaria, a disease historically endemic in Africa. Carriers of one sickle allele are less likely to die from malaria (an adaptive advantage in malarial regions), but inheriting two copies causes anemia. Thus, the high frequency of the sickle cell gene in Africans (and some South Asians) is a result of natural selection – a genetic adaptation to the environment. This example shows race-linked genetic traits can have functional consequences. Other malaria-protective genetic variants (like G6PD deficiency and thalassemias) are prevalent in Mediterranean, African, or Southeast Asian racial groups, but rare in those from non-malarial regions, illustrating how different populations evolved different solutions to the same problem (malaria).
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78		-* Lactose Intolerance: The ability to digest lactose (the sugar in milk) after infancy is governed by genetic variants in the *LCT* gene, and it varies dramatically among races due to past dietary regimes. Lactase persistence (continued production of lactase enzyme into adulthood) evolved in populations with a long history of dairy farming. It is very high in Northern Europeans (and some pastoralist African groups), but low in East Asians, many Africans, and indigenous Americans. In the United States, only about 15% of adult Caucasians are lactose intolerant, whereas roughly 85% of African-Americans and 90+% of Asian-Americans are lactose intolerant./foot In East Asia and many African and Native American groups, the majority of adults experience some degree of lactose intolerance (with symptoms like bloating when consuming fresh milk). This stark difference is clearly genetic and tied to race/ancestry – it has nothing to do with skin color, but with millennia of evolutionary adaptation to cattle domestication. The lactase persistence allele common in Europeans is essentially absent in East Asians, for example. Such facts demonstrate that human races differ in metabolic and digestive traits in line with their traditional diets.
	78	+* Lactose Intolerance: The ability to digest lactose (the sugar in milk) after infancy is governed by genetic variants in the *LCT* gene, and it varies dramatically among races due to past dietary regimes. Lactase persistence (continued production of lactase enzyme into adulthood) evolved in populations with a long history of dairy farming. It is very high in Northern Europeans (and some pastoralist African groups), but low in East Asians, many Africans, and indigenous Americans. In the United States, only about 15% of adult Caucasians are lactose intolerant, whereas roughly 85% of African-Americans and 90+% of Asian-Americans are lactose intolerant.{{footnote}} https://gi.org/topics/lactose-intolerance-in-children/#:~:text=Approximately%2015,of%20lactose%20intolerance%20is{{/footnote}} In East Asia and many African and Native American groups, the majority of adults experience some degree of lactose intolerance (with symptoms like bloating when consuming fresh milk).{{footnote}} https://gi.org/topics/lactose-intolerance-in-children/#:~:text=Approximately%2015,of%20lactose%20intolerance%20is{{/footnote}} This stark difference is clearly genetic and tied to race/ancestry – it has nothing to do with skin color, but with millennia of evolutionary adaptation to cattle domestication. The lactase persistence allele common in Europeans is essentially absent in East Asians, for example. Such facts demonstrate that human races differ in metabolic and digestive traits in line with their traditional diets.
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80		-* Drug Response and Medical Reactions: Ancestry can influence how patients respond to certain medications. For instance, some heart medications (like ACE inhibitors) are on average *less effective* in black patients than in white patients, leading to the development of BiDil (a heart failure drug combination) that was specifically tested and approved for African-American patients. Another example: the adverse reaction Stevens-Johnson syndrome is associated with a particular HLA allele that is far more common in people of Southeast Asian ancestry – prompting genetic screening for at-risk Asian patients before prescribing certain drugs (like carbamazepine). Additionally, the tolerable doses of drugs metabolized by specific liver enzymes can vary by race, because the frequency of enzyme variants (CYP450 family, etc.) differs. In short, race/ancestry is a useful proxy for certain genetic profiles relevant to healthcare. The U.S. FDA and medical practitioners increasingly recognize that a patient’s racial or ethnic background can be a valuable piece of information in diagnosis and treatment, precisely because it correlates with underlying genetic factors affecting health.
	80	+* Drug Response and Medical Reactions: Ancestry can influence how patients respond to certain medications. For instance, some heart medications (like ACE inhibitors) are on average *less effective* in black patients than in white patients, leading to the development of BiDil (a heart failure drug combination) that was specifically tested and approved for African-American patients. Another example: the adverse reaction Stevens-Johnson syndrome is associated with a particular HLA allele that is far more common in people of Southeast Asian ancestry – prompting genetic screening for at-risk Asian patients before prescribing certain drugs (like carbamazepine). Additionally, the tolerable doses of drugs metabolized by specific liver enzymes can vary by race, because the frequency of enzyme variants (CYP450 family, etc.) differs. In short, race/ancestry is a useful proxy for certain genetic profiles relevant to healthcare.{{footnote}} https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=Finally%20the%20implications%20of%20this,save%20lives%20in%20the%20future{{/footnote}} The U.S. FDA and medical practitioners increasingly recognize that a patient’s racial or ethnic background can be a valuable piece of information in diagnosis and treatment, precisely because it correlates with underlying genetic factors affecting health.
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82		-* Disease Susceptibilities: Different races show differing patterns of disease prevalence. For example, hypertension and type-2 diabetes rates are notably higher in some populations (e.g., African-Americans have higher hypertension prevalence than whites in the U.S.), likely due to a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Prostate cancer is another example – it has a significantly higher incidence and mortality in men of African descent worldwide compared to other groups, suggesting genetic risk factors play a role. Meanwhile, osteoporosis is more common in people of European and Asian descent and relatively less common in Africans (consistent with the higher bone density in black populations). Skin cancers are very rare in darkly pigmented races but common in light-pigmented groups under strong sunlight. Each of these disparities has a biological component tied to race.
	82	+* Disease Susceptibilities: Different races show differing patterns of disease prevalence. For example, hypertension and type-2 diabetes rates are notably higher in some populations (e.g., African-Americans have higher hypertension prevalence than whites in the U.S.), likely due to a combination of genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Prostate cancer is another example – it has a significantly higher incidence and mortality in men of African descent worldwide compared to other groups, suggesting genetic risk factors play a role. Meanwhile, osteoporosis is more common in people of European and Asian descent and relatively less common in Africans (consistent with the higher bone density in black populations).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=higher%20mineral%20content,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} {{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children{{/footnote}} Skin cancers are very rare in darkly pigmented races but common in light-pigmented groups under strong sunlight. Each of these disparities has a biological component tied to race.
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84		-A dramatic illustration was given by former U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher: as of around 2000, *black infants in America were 2.5 times more likely to die in their first year than white infants*. While some of this difference is socioeconomic, studies have found that even after accounting for factors like income and access to care, racial gaps in infant mortality and other health outcomes persist. The cause is not fully understood – hypotheses range from chronic stress of discrimination to possible genetic or bio-social factors. The AR (American Renaissance) source cynically noted that it’s hard to attribute an excess death rate in *newborns* to social racism, hinting that biological differences (e.g. lower birth weight, different maturation rates, etc.) might be involved. While that interpretation is controversial, the raw facts of health disparities underscore that human populations are *not identical in health profile*, and some differences may stem from inherited traits. Modern medicine is actively studying such differences to better tailor treatments and preventive measures to diverse populations.
	84	+A dramatic illustration was given by former U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher: as of around 2000, *black infants in America were 2.5 times more likely to die in their first year than white infants.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=This%20difference%20is%20often%20ascribed,be%20caused%20by%20one%20of{{/footnote}} While some of this difference is socioeconomic, studies have found that even after accounting for factors like income and access to care, racial gaps in infant mortality and other health outcomes persist.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=This%20difference%20is%20often%20ascribed,be%20caused%20by%20one%20of{{/footnote}} {{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=This%20difference%20is%20often%20ascribed,be%20caused%20by%20one%20of{{/footnote}} The cause is not fully understood – hypotheses range from chronic stress of discrimination to possible genetic or bio-social factors. The AR (American Renaissance) source cynically noted that it’s hard to attribute an excess death rate in *newborns* to social racism,{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=This%20difference%20is%20often%20ascribed,be%20caused%20by%20one%20of{{/footnote}} hinting that biological differences (e.g. lower birth weight, different maturation rates, etc.) might be involved. While that interpretation is controversial, the raw facts of health disparities underscore that human populations are *not identical in health profile*, and some differences may stem from inherited traits. Modern medicine is actively studying such differences to better tailor treatments and preventive measures to diverse populations.{{footnote}} https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=Finally%20the%20implications%20of%20this,save%20lives%20in%20the%20future{{/footnote}}
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86	86	## Evolved Differences Beyond Skin Color##
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88	88	As the above examples show, many racial differences have legitimate evolutionary purposes aside from the superficial trait of skin pigmentation. Each race represents an adaptive package: a set of traits that offered survival or reproductive advantages in their ancestral environment. A few key examples of adaptive differences include:
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90		-* Thermoregulation: Body builds (slender vs stocky), sweat gland activity, and even resting metabolic rate differ by climate of origin. These help people either shed heat (Africans have more sweat glands and lower metabolic heat production) or retain heat (Inuit and others have compact builds and maybe higher metabolic rates). Even fat storage patterns (steatopygia vs generalized fat) are adaptive responses to heat vs cold stress.
	90	+* Thermoregulation: Body builds (slender vs stocky), sweat gland activity, and even resting metabolic rate differ by climate of origin.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=A%20related%20biological%20reality%20is,more%20likely%20to%20become%20obese{{/footnote}} These help people either shed heat (Africans have more sweat glands and lower metabolic heat production){{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=A%20related%20biological%20reality%20is,more%20likely%20to%20become%20obese{{/footnote}} or retain heat (Inuit and others have compact builds and maybe higher metabolic rates). Even fat storage patterns (steatopygia vs generalized fat) are adaptive responses to heat vs cold stress.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=A%20related%20biological%20reality%20is,more%20likely%20to%20become%20obese{{/footnote}} {{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=human%20equivalent%20of%20the%20camel%E2%80%99s,too%2C%20is%20a%20biological%20reality{{/footnote}}
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92	92	* Altitude Adaptation: High-altitude populations (Tibetans in Asia, Quechua in the Andes, Amhara in Ethiopia) have evolved unique physiological adaptations to low oxygen – e.g., Tibetans carry genetic variants (*EPAS1, EGLN1*) that prevent thick blood at altitude, allowing them to thrive where others get chronic altitude sickness. These variants are largely absent in lowland populations, indicating a relatively rapid local evolution. (Though not among the provided sources, this is a well-established racial adaptation.)
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102	102	## Controversies and Misconceptions##
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104		-Despite the scientific evidence for biological races, the topic is often contentious. One reason is that racial classification was historically misused to justify discrimination. This has led some scholars to reject the race concept entirely or say “race is only a social construct.” It is certainly true that the *folk categories* of race (how societies arbitrarily define racial groups) have some ambiguity and that no single gene distinguishes all members of one race from all of another. However, to leap from those truths to the claim that “race has no biological basis” is an overgeneralization not supported by current science.
	104	+Despite the scientific evidence for biological races, the topic is often contentious. One reason is that racial classification was historically misused to justify discrimination. This has led some scholars to reject the race concept entirely or say “race is only a social construct.” It is certainly true that the *folk categories* of race (how societies arbitrarily define racial groups) have some ambiguity and that no single gene distinguishes all members of one race from all of another. However, to leap from those truths to the claim that “race has no biological basis” is an overgeneralization not supported by current science./foot
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106	106	Modern researchers advocating a biological understanding of race do not claim that races are *totally separate or discrete*. Instead, they recognize that human variation is clinal and statistical – meaning traits change gradually over geography and that any racial boundaries will be blurred at the edges. But *fuzzy boundaries do not erase the existence of clusters*. As evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne explains, the existence of intermediate cases or the arbitrariness of drawing lines does not negate the reality that genetic ancestry clusters exist and matter. We can analogize to colors of the rainbow: there is no sharp boundary between, say, orange and yellow, yet orange and yellow are real groupings on the light spectrum. Similarly, human groups transition gradually, yet Africans, Europeans, East Asians, etc., are real genetic clusters at the continental scale.
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