Changes for page The Existence of Race

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62	62	* Muscle and Athletics: There are well-known racial patterns in athletic performance that align with genetic ancestry. East African runners (particularly the Kalenjin tribe of Kenya and related groups in highland Kenya/Ethiopia) dominate world long-distance running, whereas West African-descended athletes excel in sprinting and explosive track events. For example, about 40% of top world-class middle- and long-distance runners have come from the Kalenjin (a Nilotic people who comprise only \10% of Kenya’s population).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe{{/footnote}} Their success is often attributed to a mix of genetic, physiological, and cultural factors – including slim body morphology, high-altitude training environment, and perhaps evolutionary history of endurance activities.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=ancestors%20have%20been%20tending%20cattle,from%20just%20this%20one%20tribe{{/footnote}} In sprinting, virtually all Olympic 100m finalists for decades have been of West African descent, reflecting genetic predispositions for muscle fiber type and anaerobic power. While social factors play a role in sports, these patterns strongly suggest underlying biological differences in musculature and physiology between populations. Indeed, even within Africa, the contrast of body types is evident: “Elongated” Nilotic Africans (e.g. Kalenjin, Dinka) are exceptionally tall and tend toward endurance, whereas many West African groups have comparatively more musculature and power suited to sprinting and jumping. Such differences illustrate how human populations have specialized via evolution.
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64		-* Growth and Development: Racial groups differ in rates of growth and maturation. On average, African-descended infants and children develop faster on some motor and physical milestones than European-descended ones. For example, black babies in the U.S. are often born slightly earlier (shorter gestation) and at slightly lower birth weights than white babies, yet they mature more rapidly postnatally.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} Studies (and anecdotal observations) have found that black infants tend to hold their heads up, sit, crawl, and walk a bit earlier than white infants of the same age – a pattern also reported in some African populations.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} One extreme case is the Efe pygmies, among whom babies have been observed to walk as early as 6 months, roughly twice as fast as the typical European infant timeline (12 months).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=On%20the%20subject%20of%20size%2C,quickly%20than%20any%20human%20group{{/footnote}} Black children also enter puberty earlier, on average, than whites: in the U.S., African-American girls begin breast development and menstruation about 1–2 years earlier than European-American girls, and similarly boys show earlier genital development.{{footnote}} {{/footnote}} By around age 12, many black youths are biologically more mature (in bone growth and muscle mass) than their white peers. East Asians, in contrast, tend to be slightly later in maturation than Europeans (on average), continuing the pattern of an observed gradient: fast development at one end (Africans) and slowest at the other (East Asians), with Europeans intermediate – a pattern noted by J.P. Rushton and others as part of broader life-history differences. These developmental timing differences have practical implications (for instance, in youth athletics or education) and likely genetic underpinnings.
	64	+* Growth and Development: Racial groups differ in rates of growth and maturation. On average, African-descended infants and children develop faster on some motor and physical milestones than European-descended ones. For example, black babies in the U.S. are often born slightly earlier (shorter gestation) and at slightly lower birth weights than white babies, yet they mature more rapidly postnatally.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} Studies (and anecdotal observations) have found that black infants tend to hold their heads up, sit, crawl, and walk a bit earlier than white infants of the same age – a pattern also reported in some African populations.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20race%20differences,in%20blacks%20than%20in%20whites{{/footnote}} One extreme case is the Efe pygmies, among whom babies have been observed to walk as early as 6 months, roughly twice as fast as the typical European infant timeline (12 months).{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=On%20the%20subject%20of%20size%2C,quickly%20than%20any%20human%20group{{/footnote}} Black children also enter puberty earlier, on average, than whites: in the U.S., African-American girls begin breast development and menstruation about 1–2 years earlier than European-American girls, and similarly boys show earlier genital development.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children{{/footnote}} By around age 12, many black youths are biologically more mature (in bone growth and muscle mass) than their white peers.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=Blacks%20have%20more%20lean%20body,years%20sooner%20than%20white%20children{{/footnote}} East Asians, in contrast, tend to be slightly later in maturation than Europeans (on average), continuing the pattern of an observed gradient: fast development at one end (Africans) and slowest at the other (East Asians), with Europeans intermediate – a pattern noted by J.P. Rushton and others as part of broader life-history differences. These developmental timing differences have practical implications (for instance, in youth athletics or education) and likely genetic underpinnings.
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66		-* Brain and Cranial Size: Numerous studies (using methods from endocranial volume of skulls to MRI scans) have found average differences in brain size and cranial capacity among races. The differences are modest and with much overlap, but on average, East Asians have been found to have the largest brain volumes, followed by Europeans, then Africans, in many studies. For example, 19th-20th century physical anthropologists like Gould (reanalysing Morton’s skull measurements) and contemporary researchers like Rushton reported such trends in cranial measurements. These differences persist even when controlling for body size. It must be emphasized that brain size is only one factor among many in cognition (and there is debate about its significance), but the point here is that consistent anatomical differences in brain morphology have been observed. They align with the idea that human populations followed slightly different evolutionary paths, possibly due to climate (larger brains may help in cold climates for thermoregulation) or other selective pressures. Neuroscientist Michael Woodley notes that human groups can even be considered “phylogenetic species” under one definition – meaning the smallest discernible lineage clusters exist below the species level, though all humans remain one biological species in the sense of interbreeding capacity.
	66	+* Brain and Cranial Size: Numerous studies (using methods from endocranial volume of skulls to MRI scans) have found average differences in brain size and cranial capacity among races. The differences are modest and with much overlap, but on average, East Asians have been found to have the largest brain volumes, followed by Europeans, then Africans, in many studies.{{footnote}} https://www.amren.com/archives/back-issues/october-1999/#:~:text=There%20are%20differences%20in%20hormones%2C,have%20many%20consequences%20for%20society{{/footnote}} For example, 19th-20th century physical anthropologists like Gould (reanalysing Morton’s skull measurements) and contemporary researchers like Rushton reported such trends in cranial measurements. These differences persist even when controlling for body size. It must be emphasized that brain size is only one factor among many in cognition (and there is debate about its significance), but the point here is that consistent anatomical differences in brain morphology have been observed. They align with the idea that human populations followed slightly different evolutionary paths, possibly due to climate (larger brains may help in cold climates for thermoregulation) or other selective pressures. Neuroscientist Michael Woodley notes that human groups can even be considered “phylogenetic species” under one definition – meaning the smallest discernible lineage clusters exist below the species level, though all humans remain one biological species in the sense of interbreeding capacity.{{footnote}} https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26756268_Is_Homo_sapiens_polytypic_Human_taxonomic_diversity_and_its_implications#:~:text=taxonomic%20classification%20is%20considered%20where,the%20level%20of%20biological%20species{{/footnote}}
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68		-* Other Organ Systems: Virtually every organ system shows some racial pattern. For instance, lung capacity tends to be a bit lower (by about 5–10% on average) in African-descended populations compared to Europeans, which has been accounted for in medical guidelines for pulmonary function (this difference may relate to body build and barrel chest shape differences). Kidney function genes like APOL1 variants are found almost exclusively in people of recent African ancestry and confer protection against certain African parasites *but* also higher risk of kidney disease in modern environments. Similarly, alcohol metabolism genes vary: a significant proportion of East Asians carry an allele (*ALDH2* deficiency) that causes alcohol flush reaction and lower alcohol tolerance – a variant rare in Europeans or Africans. Conversely, many Europeans have genetic adaptations for digesting starches and alcohol due to long agricultural history. These examples illustrate that human populations evolved unique genetic adaptations to their local environments and diets.
	68	+* Other Organ Systems: Virtually every organ system shows some racial pattern. For instance, lung capacity tends to be a bit lower (by about 5–10% on average) in African-descended populations compared to Europeans, which has been accounted for in medical guidelines for pulmonary function (this difference may relate to body build and barrel chest shape differences). Kidney function genes like APOL1 variants are found almost exclusively in people of recent African ancestry and confer protection against certain African parasites *but* also higher risk of kidney disease in modern environments. Similarly, alcohol metabolism genes vary: a significant proportion of East Asians carry an allele (*ALDH2* deficiency) that causes alcohol flush reaction and lower alcohol tolerance – a variant rare in Europeans or Africans.{{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Alcohol%20flush%20reaction%20,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C{{/footnote}} {{footnote}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_flush_reaction#:~:text=Around%2020%E2%80%9330,functional%20acetaldehyde%20dehydrogenase%20enzyme%2C{{/footnote}} Conversely, many Europeans have genetic adaptations for digesting starches and alcohol due to long agricultural history. These examples illustrate that human populations evolved unique genetic adaptations to their local environments and diets.
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70	70	## Health and Biomedical Differences##
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72	72	Biologically real racial differences are particularly evident in health and disease profiles. Certain genetic diseases or medical conditions are far more prevalent in some races than others, underscoring the practical importance of biological race in medicine:
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74		-* Blood Groups and Transfusions: Blood type frequencies vary by ethnicity, and *some rare blood antigens are found only in specific racial groups*. According to the American Red Cross, *“there are more than 600 known antigens, and some are unique to specific racial and ethnic groups.”* For patients with conditions like sickle cell disease who need frequent transfusions, finding a compatible blood match often requires a donor of the same racial background. For example, U-negative blood (a rare type) is found almost exclusively in people of African descent. The Red Cross and other blood services therefore emphasize the need for racially diverse blood donors so that all patients can find well-matched units. This is a clear-cut case where race is literally a factor in saving lives – a purely social construct would not correlate with immunohematology, but in reality, one’s ancestry (race) predicts one’s blood antigen profile.
	74	+* Blood Groups and Transfusions: Blood type frequencies vary by ethnicity, and *some rare blood antigens are found only in specific racial groups*. According to the American Red Cross, *“there are more than 600 known antigens, and some are unique to specific racial and ethnic groups.”{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=,patient%20with%20sickle%20cell%20disease{{/footnote}} For patients with conditions like sickle cell disease who need frequent transfusions, finding a compatible blood match often requires a donor of the same racial background.{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=,patient%20with%20sickle%20cell%20disease{{/footnote}} For example, U-negative blood (a rare type) is found almost exclusively in people of African descent. The Red Cross and other blood services therefore emphasize the need for racially diverse blood donors so that all patients can find well-matched units.{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=,patient%20with%20sickle%20cell%20disease{{/footnote}} This is a clear-cut case where race is literally a factor in saving lives – a purely social construct would not correlate with immunohematology, but in reality, one’s ancestry (race) predicts one’s blood antigen profile.
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76		-* Sickle Cell Disease & Malaria Adaptation: *Sickle cell anemia* is often cited in discussions of race and genetics. This serious genetic blood disorder is most common in those of African descent (also in parts of the Middle East and India). In the U.S., over 100,000 individuals (mostly African-Americans) have sickle cell disease. The reason is evolutionary: the sickle-cell mutation provides resistance to malaria, a disease historically endemic in Africa. Carriers of one sickle allele are less likely to die from malaria (an adaptive advantage in malarial regions), but inheriting two copies causes anemia. Thus, the high frequency of the sickle cell gene in Africans (and some South Asians) is a result of natural selection – a genetic adaptation to the environment. This example shows race-linked genetic traits can have functional consequences. Other malaria-protective genetic variants (like G6PD deficiency and thalassemias) are prevalent in Mediterranean, African, or Southeast Asian racial groups, but rare in those from non-malarial regions, illustrating how different populations evolved different solutions to the same problem (malaria).
	76	+* Sickle Cell Disease & Malaria Adaptation: *Sickle cell anemia* is often cited in discussions of race and genetics. This serious genetic blood disorder is most common in those of African descent (also in parts of the Middle East and India). In the U.S., over 100,000 individuals (mostly African-Americans) have sickle cell disease.{{footnote}} https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/blood-types/diversity/african-american-blood-donors.html#:~:text=More%20than%20100%2C000%20individuals%20in,blood%20transfusions%20throughout%20their%20lifetime{{/footnote}} The reason is evolutionary: the sickle-cell mutation provides resistance to malaria, a disease historically endemic in Africa. Carriers of one sickle allele are less likely to die from malaria (an adaptive advantage in malarial regions), but inheriting two copies causes anemia. Thus, the high frequency of the sickle cell gene in Africans (and some South Asians) is a result of natural selection – a genetic adaptation to the environment. This example shows race-linked genetic traits can have functional consequences. Other malaria-protective genetic variants (like G6PD deficiency and thalassemias) are prevalent in Mediterranean, African, or Southeast Asian racial groups, but rare in those from non-malarial regions, illustrating how different populations evolved different solutions to the same problem (malaria).
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78		-* Lactose Intolerance: The ability to digest lactose (the sugar in milk) after infancy is governed by genetic variants in the *LCT* gene, and it varies dramatically among races due to past dietary regimes. Lactase persistence (continued production of lactase enzyme into adulthood) evolved in populations with a long history of dairy farming. It is very high in Northern Europeans (and some pastoralist African groups), but low in East Asians, many Africans, and indigenous Americans. In the United States, only about 15% of adult Caucasians are lactose intolerant, whereas roughly 85% of African-Americans and 90+% of Asian-Americans are lactose intolerant. In East Asia and many African and Native American groups, the majority of adults experience some degree of lactose intolerance (with symptoms like bloating when consuming fresh milk). This stark difference is clearly genetic and tied to race/ancestry – it has nothing to do with skin color, but with millennia of evolutionary adaptation to cattle domestication. The lactase persistence allele common in Europeans is essentially absent in East Asians, for example. Such facts demonstrate that human races differ in metabolic and digestive traits in line with their traditional diets.
	78	+* Lactose Intolerance: The ability to digest lactose (the sugar in milk) after infancy is governed by genetic variants in the *LCT* gene, and it varies dramatically among races due to past dietary regimes. Lactase persistence (continued production of lactase enzyme into adulthood) evolved in populations with a long history of dairy farming. It is very high in Northern Europeans (and some pastoralist African groups), but low in East Asians, many Africans, and indigenous Americans. In the United States, only about 15% of adult Caucasians are lactose intolerant, whereas roughly 85% of African-Americans and 90+% of Asian-Americans are lactose intolerant.{{footnote}} https://gi.org/topics/lactose-intolerance-in-children/#:~:text=Approximately%2015,of%20lactose%20intolerance%20is{{/footnote}} In East Asia and many African and Native American groups, the majority of adults experience some degree of lactose intolerance (with symptoms like bloating when consuming fresh milk)./ This stark difference is clearly genetic and tied to race/ancestry – it has nothing to do with skin color, but with millennia of evolutionary adaptation to cattle domestication. The lactase persistence allele common in Europeans is essentially absent in East Asians, for example. Such facts demonstrate that human races differ in metabolic and digestive traits in line with their traditional diets.
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80	80	* Drug Response and Medical Reactions: Ancestry can influence how patients respond to certain medications. For instance, some heart medications (like ACE inhibitors) are on average *less effective* in black patients than in white patients, leading to the development of BiDil (a heart failure drug combination) that was specifically tested and approved for African-American patients. Another example: the adverse reaction Stevens-Johnson syndrome is associated with a particular HLA allele that is far more common in people of Southeast Asian ancestry – prompting genetic screening for at-risk Asian patients before prescribing certain drugs (like carbamazepine). Additionally, the tolerable doses of drugs metabolized by specific liver enzymes can vary by race, because the frequency of enzyme variants (CYP450 family, etc.) differs. In short, race/ancestry is a useful proxy for certain genetic profiles relevant to healthcare. The U.S. FDA and medical practitioners increasingly recognize that a patient’s racial or ethnic background can be a valuable piece of information in diagnosis and treatment, precisely because it correlates with underlying genetic factors affecting health.
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