Changes for page The Existence of Race

Summary

• Page properties (1 modified, 0 added, 0 removed)

Details

Page properties

Content

...	...	@@ -14,6 +14,28 @@
14	14
15	15	Historically, physical anthropologists identified numerous human races based on clusters of inherited physical traits. Joseph Deniker (1900) and Hans F. K. Günther (1927), for instance, catalogued various races (or “racial elements”) in Europe and worldwide, distinguished by traits like skull shape, stature, facial form, hair texture, and pigmentation.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} Such early classifications recognized, for example, a “Nordic race” in Northwest Europe – characterized by *tall stature, long heads (dolichocephalic), narrow faces, and light pigmentation* – versus a “Dinaric race” in the central European Alps with *shorter, broad skulls (brachycephalic) and broader faces*.{{footnote}}Hans F. K. Günther, *The Racial Elements of European History*, 1927. Available at: [[https://archive.org/stream/racialelementsof035485mbp/racialelementsof035485mbp_djvu.txt#:~:text=one%20or%20the%20other%20race,over%20the%20nape%20of%20the]]{{/footnote}} The fact that even pre-genetic era scientists could reliably identify geographically distinct human types underscores that human variation is non-random and structured, consistent with the existence of races.
16	16
	17	+== Neanderthal Admixture and Its Implications for Human Racial Classification ==
	18	+
	19	+The taxonomic status of Neanderthals has long been debated, traditionally classified as a distinct species, *Homo neanderthalensis*, based on notable morphological differences from modern humans (*Homo sapiens*). These differences include a more robust skeletal build, larger cranial capacity, pronounced brow ridges, and distinct facial features. However, advances in ancient DNA sequencing and paleogenetics have complicated this view by revealing evidence of gene flow between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans.
	20	+
	21	+=== Morphological Distinctions ===
	22	+
	23	+Neanderthals are characterized by several skeletal features that distinguish them from modern humans: they have larger, elongated cranial vaults with a projecting midface, prominent supraorbital ridges (brow ridges), wider noses with larger nasal cavities, shorter and stockier limbs adapted for cold climates, and an overall robust skeletal morphology. While these traits are significant, many overlap with the range of variation found within some modern human populations, particularly among archaic or robust groups, making strict morphological delineation challenging.{{footnote}}Green, Richard E., et al., "A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome," *Science* 328(5979): 710–722 (2010). Available at: [[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1188021]]{{/footnote}} {{footnote}}Prüfer, Kay, et al., "The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains," *Nature* 505: 43–49 (2014). Available at: [[https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12886]]{{/footnote}}
	24	+
	25	+=== Genetic Evidence and Interbreeding ===
	26	+
	27	+Genomic analyses have established that non-African modern humans possess approximately 1–4% Neanderthal-derived DNA, indicating that interbreeding occurred after modern humans migrated out of Africa around 50,000 to 70,000 years ago.{{footnote}}Green, Richard E., et al., "A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome," *Science* 328(5979): 710–722 (2010). Available at: [[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1188021]]{{/footnote}} {{footnote}}Reich, David, et al., "Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania," *American Journal of Human Genetics* 89(4): 516–528 (2011). Available at: [[https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(11)00364-2]]{{/footnote}} This gene flow indicates reproductive compatibility, producing fertile offspring, which aligns with the biological species concept where species boundaries are defined by reproductive isolation. Consequently, many researchers argue that Neanderthals may be more accurately considered a subspecies or regional population within a broader *Homo sapiens* species complex rather than a completely separate species.{{footnote}}Pääbo, Svante, "The human condition—a molecular approach," *Cell* 157(1): 216–226 (2014). Available at: [[https://www.cell.com/fulltext/S0092-8674(14)00267-2]]{{/footnote}} {{footnote}}Coyne, Jerry A. and H. Allen Orr, *Speciation*, Sinauer Associates, 2004.{{/footnote}}
	28	+
	29	+=== Implications for Racial Classification ===
	30	+
	31	+The Neanderthal-modern human admixture case provides an instructive analogy for modern human racial classification. It demonstrates how gene flow and admixture can blur subspecies or species boundaries. Prior to interbreeding, Neanderthals possessed unique alleles absent in *Homo sapiens*; however, these alleles entered the modern human gene pool through hybridization, eroding strict genetic distinctions. Similarly, human races differ largely in allele frequencies rather than possessing exclusive alleles. Morphological differences between races also overlap continuously without discrete boundaries.
	32	+
	33	+Importantly, the timeline of divergence is key: Neanderthals diverged from modern humans hundreds of thousands of years ago and were largely isolated until admixture events, whereas modern racial groups diverged more recently (tens of thousands of years ago) with ongoing gene flow. Classification decisions—whether based on reproductive isolation, genetic differentiation, or morphology—are inherently human constructs reflecting chosen criteria.
	34	+
	35	+Thus, the Neanderthal case supports viewing modern races as meaningful biological clusters within one species, acknowledging partial reproductive isolation and allele frequency differences but no fully unique, fixed genetic boundaries. The blurring of Neanderthal distinctiveness through admixture parallels the fluidity and fuzziness of racial boundaries within *Homo sapiens*.{{footnote}}Sankararaman, Sriram, et al., "The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans," *Nature* 507: 354–357 (2014). Available at: [[https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12961]]{{/footnote}} {{footnote}}Vernot, Benjamin and Joshua M. Akey, "Resurrecting surviving Neandertal lineages from modern human genomes," *Science* 343(6174): 1017–1021 (2014). Available at: [[https://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6174/1017]]{{/footnote}}
	36	+
	37	+
	38	+
17	17	== Genetic Evidence for Human Races ==
18	18
19	19	With the advent of genetics, researchers can directly examine human population structure. Modern genomic studies have repeatedly found that human genetic variation is not a homogeneous blur, but rather clusters into discernible groups corresponding to traditional racial categories and geographic ancestry.{{footnote}}Jerry Coyne, "Once again: are 'races' social constructs without biological meaning?" *Why Evolution Is True* blog, July 19, 2022. Available at: [[https://whyevolutionistrue.com/2022/07/19/once-again-are-races-social-constructs-without-scientific-or-biological-meaning/#:~:text=,And%20Me%20stay%20in%20business]]{{/footnote}} Notably, in a landmark analysis of over 3,600 individuals from around the world, genetic clustering algorithms could sort people into distinct groups (clusters) that correspond almost perfectly to self-identified race/ethnicity. In that study, *over 99%* of individuals were genetically classified into the same group as their self-declared race (only 5 out of 3,636 were exceptions). Such findings directly refute the notion that race is purely arbitrary; instead, they show that an individual’s continental ancestry can be determined from DNA with over 99% accuracy in these samples.{{footnote}}Tang, Hua et al. *“Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies.”* American Journal of Human Genetics 76(2): 268–275 (2005) – (Found that genetic clusters correspond 99.86% with self-identified race in a US sample). Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707625786{{/footnote}}